Term 5: Memory
You will study several keys areas in memory research. These include: models of memory; types of long-term memory; explanations for forgetting; factors that affect eye-witness testimony; and improving the accuracy of eye-witness testimony. You will develop their understanding of supporting research and be able to evaluate each of the topics studied within this unit. You will also continue to explore a range of the research methods topics and design your own study.
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions.
Anxiety
State of emotional arousal where there is a feeling or experience of apprehension and uncertainty
Articulatory process
Part of the phonological loop that repeats sounds or words to keep them in working memory until they are needed
Capacity
The amount of information that can be held in memory
Central executive
Part of working memory that coordinates other components
Chunking
Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units
Coding
Changing the format of information for use in memory
Cognitive interview
Interview technique devised to improve the accuracy of witness recall
Context-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the external cues at recall are different to those at the time of learning
Cue-dependent forgetting
Failure to recall information due to an absence of cuesor 'tiggers'
Duration
The length of time information remains in memory
Episodic buffer
Part of working memory which is a temporary store integrating information from the other components
Episodic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about specific experiences and events in our lives
Eyewitness testimony
An account given by people of an event they have witnessed
Forgetting
Failure to retrieve memories
Inner scribe
Stores information about the physical relationship of items (part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad)
Interference theory
Memory can be disrupted not only by previous learning but also by what is learned in the future
Leading question
Question phrased in such a way that it prompts a particular kind of answer
Long-term memory
Permanent store holding unlimited amounts of information for long periods
Misleading information
Incorrect information given the an eyewitness after an event
Multi-store model
Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems
Phonological loop
Part of working memory that deals with auditory information
Post-event discussion
A potential source of misleading information where witnesses discuss what they saw afterwards
Primary acoustic store
Part of the phonological loop which stores words heard
Proactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
Procedural memory
Long-term memory for "knowing how"
Repression
Unpleasant material is pushed into the unconscious mind
Retrieval
The recall of stored memories
Retrieval failure
Difficulties in recall that are due to the absence of the correct retrieval cues
Retroactive interference
Occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information
Schema
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information
Semantic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about the world that is not linked to particular contexts or events
Sensory register
Store of sensory information that lasts no more than a few seconds
Short-term memory
Temporary memory store that holds limited amount of information for a short period of time
State-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that at the time of learning
Visual cache
Part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad that stores information about form and colour
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Part of working memory that deals with visual information
Working memory model
Model that suggests short-term memory is composed of three, limited capacity stores
Develop the individual:
Students will see how the scientific method is applied directly in psychological research and in turn informs our daily practices.
Create a supportive community:
Students will explore to what extent our cognitive processes can be effected by external factors and thus impact social cohesion.
Term 1: Approaches
You will begin the course with an introduction to the key features of a science and explore the issues and debates around the question, ‘Is Psychology a Science?’
Within the Approaches unit, you will develop an understanding of the origins of psychology, and the basic assumptions of the core approaches in psychology. You will study the following approaches: Behaviourism; Social Learning Theory; Cognitive Approach; Biological Approach; Psychodynamic Approach; and Humanism. Evaluation skills will also be developed in this topic so that you are able to write an in-depth discussion of each approach.
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions.
Classical conditioning
Learning through association when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together
Cognitive neuroscience
An academic field that studies the influence of brain structures on mental processes using techniques such as brain scans
Computer models
Software simulations of internal mental processes that are created in collaboration with computer scientists.
Empirical
Based on scientific testing or personal experience rather than theory or logic
Evolution
Occurs when a link between a neurotransmitter and receptor site in a synapse makes the receptor site?s cell more likely to act
Genotype
A person's unique genetic make-up that is coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception
Hormones
Biochemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream in order to target specific organs
Identification
Associating with a role model's and adopting their behaviour because you want to be like them
Imitation
Copying or reproducing behaviour that has been learned through observation
Inference
Process of drawing conclusions about general patterns of behaviour
Information processing model
The idea that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages
Internal mental processes
The operations both conscious and unconscious that occur during thinking. For example, perception and memory
Introspection
Observing and examining your own conscious thoughts and emotions
Learning
A relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience
Mediating cognitive factors
Internal mental processes that lie between the stimulus and the response
Modelling
Imitating a role model or producing a specific behaviour that may then be imitated by the observer
Natural selection
The way that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances the ability to survive and reproduce will continue in future generations
Negative reinforcement
Avoiding or removing something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed that increases the chance tha the behaviour is repeated
Objective
Not influenced by private emotions, perceptions, or biases
Operant conditioning
Learning through reinforcement where behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
Phenotype
The expression of a person's genetic make-up that can be influenced by the environment
Positive reinforcement
Receiving something pleasant when a behaviour is performed that increases the chance the behaviour is repeated
Punishment
Receiving something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed which decreases the chance the behaviour is repeated
Reciprocal determinism
The way a person is influenced by their environment but also influences their environment
Response
The reaction to a specific stimulus e.g. salivating when you see food
Schemas
Mental frameworks of information that we use to organise past experience and to interpret and respond to new situations.
Social learning theory
The view that people learn through observing others
Stimulus
Anything in the environment detectable by the senses e.g. sound, smell
Structuralism
Using the experiment method to find the building blocks of thought
Subjective
Affected by personal feelings, prejudices and interpretations
Theoretical models
Diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes, e.g. the information-processing model.
Twin study
Used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates between pairs of twins
Vicarious reinforcement
Observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour and the consequences of their actions
Develop the individual:
Students will develop an in-depth understanding of the different psychological approaches used in understanding human behaviour. They will be able to discuss the approaches and their views of the development and maintenance of behaviour.
Create a supportive community:
Students will learn to respect different views of behaviour whilst establishing a foundation for their own perspective.
Term 2: Psychopathology
Within this Psychopathology unit you will study the following topics: definitions of abnormality; characteristics of phobias; OCD and depressions; the behavioural explanation and treatments of phobias; the cognitive explanations and treatments for depression; and the biological explanations and treatments for OCD. You will be able to outline, and evaluate each of the concepts in order to develop in-depth discussions in the exam. You will also continue to explore a range of the research methods topics.
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions.
Agoraphobia
Irrational fear of being outside or in a public place
Avoidance
The act of staying away from something (e.g. the phobic object or situation)
Basal ganglia
Region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked to OCD
Benzodiazepines
Antianxiety drugs used to treat OCD as they have a quietening effect on the brain and reduce anxiety causes by obsessive thoughts
Bipolar depression
Condition where a person has periods of elevated mood (mania) as well as periods of depression
Catastrophising
Cognitive error where you exaggerate a minor setback and turn it into a major disaster
CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrational thoughts
Cognitive bias
Error in thinking caused by simplified information processing
Compulsion
An irresistible urge to behave in a certain way
COMT gene
A gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD
Counter-conditioning
Learning a new response to the phobic object/situation e.g. replacing fear with relaxation
Cultural relativism
The idea that cultural norms and values are culture specific and no-one culture is superior to another culture
Deviation from ideal mental health
Not meeting criteria which suggest you are mentally healthy
Deviation from social norms
A behaviour that deviates from social norms is one that is very different from how we would expect people to behave
Dopamine
Higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions shown by OCD patients
DSM-V
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition is the standard classification of mental disorders used in the United States.
Empirical dispute
REBT technique where the therapist seeks evidence for a person's thoughts
Failure to function adequately
When a person's behaviour means they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
Fear hierarchy
A list of situations related to the phobic object/situation arranged in order from least to most frightening
Flooding (in-vitro)
Behavioural treatment for a phobia which involves actual exposure to the phobic object/situation without being able to escape
Flooding (in-vivo)
Behavioural treatment for a phobia which involves actual exposure to the phobic object/situation without being able to escape
Hindsight bias
The way that social norms change over time
ICD 10
The 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, produced by the World Health Organisation
Logical dispute
REBT Technique where the therapies disputes the logic of a person's thoughts
Negative self-schemas
Negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitive biases
Negative triad
Three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggested occur automatically in people who are depressed
Obsession
An idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person's mind.
Orbifrontal cortex
A region of the brain which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions- higher activity has been found here in OCD patients
Overgeneralisation
Cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a single incident
REBT
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a type of CBT based on Ellis's ABC model
Selective attention
Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed as irrelevant
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter which regulates mood - lower levels are associated with OCD
SERT gene
A gene which affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated with OCD
Specific phobia
Irrational fear of an object (e.g. spiders) or situation (e.g. flying)
Social norm
The rules of behavior that are considered acceptable in a group or society
Social phobia
Irrational fear of a social situation (e.g. speaking in public)
SSRIs
Antidepressant drugs used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin
Statistical infrequency
A behaviour that is statistically infrequent does not happen very often
Systematic desensitisation
A behaviour therapy designed to gradually reduce a phobia through the principle of classical conditioning
Two-process model
A behaviour therapy designed to gradually reduce a phobia through the principle of classical conditioning
Unipolar depression
A major depressive episode that occurs without the manic phase
Develop the individual:
Students will develop an in-depth understanding of the different ways in which abnormality is defined and reflect on how this demonstrates our beliefs about human behaviour and the consequences of such definitions.
Create a supportive community:
Students will be better informed about mental health and thus acknowledge biological predispositions and life experiences impact individuals differently and these should be considered in a social context.
Term 3: Social Influence
You will study several core themes within the Social Influence unit: conformity; obedience; resistance to social influence; minority influence; and the role of social influence processes in social change. Furthermore, you will gain an understanding of research that supports these elements. You will also continue to develop their evaluation skills as you will be expected to discuss the strengths and limitations of the different explanations of social influence and the supporting research. You will also continue to explore a range of the research methods topics.
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions.
Authoritarian personality
A person who has extreme respect for authority and is obedient to those who have power over them
Autonomous state
Where individuals are seen as personally responsible for their actions
Cognitive dissonance
Unpleasant feeling of anxiety created when simultaneously holding two contradictory ideas
Compliance
Superficial type of conformity where people conform publicly by privately disagree
Confederates
Alternative term for stooges or pseudo-participants
Conformity
Changing what we do think or say in response to others
Dehumanisation
Degrading people by lessening their human qualities
Deindividuation
When a person moves into a group and as a result loses some individual identity
Dispositional attribution
Explanation of individual behavior as a result caused by internal characteristics that reside within the individual
Identification
Where people change their beliefs (sometimes temporarily) to fit in with a group
Individual variables
Personal characteristics that affect the degree to which individuals yield to group pressures
Internalisation
Where people change their beliefs permanently
Ironic deviance
Takes place when we believe that the behaviour of the majority is the result of unreasonable pressure from authority
Locus of control
Extent to which individuals believe they can control events in their lives
Majority influence
Alternative term for conformity
Milgram paradigm
Experimental procedure for measuring obedience rates
Minority influence
Where a individual or small group influence attitudes and behaviour of a larger group
Morality
Decisions and behaviour based upon the perception of proper conduct
Obedience
Complying with the demands of an authority figure
Personality
Combination of characteristics that forms an individual's distinctive nature
Reactance
Occurs when a person feels that someone or something is taking away his or her choices or limiting the range of alternatives
Situational variables
Features of an environment that affect the degree to which individuals yield to group pressures
Social change
The process by which attitudes, beliefs and norms of acceptable behaviour vary over time
Social roles
The parts individuals play as part of a social group
Social support
Perception of assistance and solidarity available from others
Status
The position of an individual within a hierarchical group
Systematic processing
Analysis based on critical thinking
Unanimity
Complete agreement from a group of people about an issue or question
Develop the individual:
Students will reflect on what guides their own actions and experiences. They will review why they are more or less likely to conform and obey authority. There are opportunities to link to topics from democracy and the rule of law.
Create a supportive community:
Students will explore the impact of social context on human behaviour and to what extent this varies from culture to culture. This understanding allow for a more cohesive community.
Term 4: Attachment
Within the Attachment unit, you will study several key concepts that can influence attachment or explain the influence of early attachments. The key topics studied in this unit are: caregiver-infant interactions; multiple attachments; the role of the father; animal and human studies of attachment; Ainsworth's Strange Situation and cultural variations; Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation; the effects of institutionalisation; and the influence of early attachment on later relationships. You will also be able to evaluate each of the topics studied so that they are able to develop in-depth discussions within the exam. You will also continue to explore a range of the research methods topics.
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions.
Asocial stage
Stage from 0-6 weeks where infant may respond to faces or voices but an attachment has not been formed
Attachment
Two-way enduring emotional tie to another person
Contact comfort
The physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from being close to its mother
Continuity Hypothesis
The idea that early relationships with caregivers predict later relationships in adulthood
Critical period
A time period where an attachment has to form or it never will
Disinhibited attachment
Child shows equal affection to strangers as they do people they know well
Evolutionary explanation
Explanation for behaviour such as attachment that views it as increasing survival chances
Imprinting
Where offspring follow the first large-moving object they see
Indiscriminate attachment
Infants aged 2-7 months can discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people but does not show stranger anxiety
Innate behaviour
A behaviour that is instinctive and does not need to be learned
Insecure avoidant attachment
Attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shows low stranger and separation anxiety and little response to reunion
Insecure resistant attachment
Attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shoes high stranger and separation anxiety and resists comfort at reunion
Insecure resistant attachment
The effects of growing up in an institution, such as a children's home or orphanage
Interactional synchrony
Infant and caregiver reflect each other's actions and emotions in a coordinated manner
Internal working model
Mental representation of our relationship with our primary caregiver that becomes a template for future relationships
Learning theory
Explanations that emphasise the role of learning in acquiring behaviours such as attachment
Maternal deprivation hypothesis
Separation from the mother figure in early childhood has serious consequences
Monotropy
A unique and close attachment to one person - the primary attachment figure
Multiple attachments
Formation of emotional bonds with more than one carer
Privation
Failure to form an attachment in early childhood
Proximity seeking
The way that infants try to maintain physical contact or be close to their attachment figure
Reciprocity
Infant and caregiver match each other's responses
Secure attachment
Most desirable attachment classification in Strange Situation where child shows separation anxiety, stranger anxiety and joy on reunion
Sensitive period
The best time period over which attachments can form
Separation anxiety
Degree of distress shown by the child when separated from the caregiver
Social releasers
Innate behaviours shown by an infant that lead to a caregiving response
Specific attachment
Infants aged 7 months tend to show a strong attachment to one particular person and are wary of strangers
Strange Situation
A controlled observation used to test children?s attachment patterns
Stranger anxiety
Degree of distress shown by an infant when with unfamiliar people
Temperament
The characteristics and aspects of personality an infant is born with and that might impact on its attachment type
Develop the individual:
Students will reflect on their own upbringing and consider how they developed the social skills they have.
Create a supportive community:
They will gain an appreciation for the diversity of child rearing practices and what is considered at 'attached' in different cultures.
Term 6: Research Methods
Students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the following research methods, scientific processes and techniques of data handling and analysis, be familiar with their use and be aware of their strengths and limitations.
Experimental method.
Observational techniques.
Self-report techniques.
Correlations.
Content analysis.
Case studies.
Scientific processes:
Aims
Hypotheses
Sampling
Pilot studies
Experimental design
Observational design
Questionnaire construction
Demand characteristics and investigator effects
Ethics
The role of peer review in the scientific process
The implications of psychological research for the economy
Types of validity and reliability across all methods of investigation
Features of science
Reporting psychological investigations
Data handling and analysis
Quantitative and qualitative data
Primary and secondary data
Descriptive statistics
Presentation and display of quantitative data
Distributions
Levels of measurement
Content analysis and thematic analysis
You will be assessed weekly through a range of questions including multiple choice, short answer and extended writing in the form of 16 mark essays. Maths skills and research methods topics will be assessed regularly. Your knowledge retention will be assessed weekly by a range of short answer questions. You will also sit a formal mock this term.
Bar chart
A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.
Behavioural categories
Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record
Case study
In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
Closed questions
Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data
Co-variables
The variables investigated in a correlation
Concurrent validity
Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity
Confidentiality
Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV
Content analysis
Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories ? converting qualitative data into quantitative data.
Control group
A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally).
Controlled observation
An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting
Correlational analysis
A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related
Counterbalancing
A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A
Covert observation
Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed
Critical value
The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted.
Debriefing
After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part.
Deception
Involves misleading participants about the purpose of s study.
Demand characteristics
Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way.
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome.
Descriptive statistics
Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way
Directional hypothesis
A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
Dispersion measure
A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation
Double blind control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.
Ecological validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings
Ethical guidelines
These are provided by the BPS - they are the ?rules? by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.
Ethical issues
There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research ? deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants.
Evaluation apprehension
Participants? behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers
Event sampling
A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
Experimental group
The group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)
External validity
Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting.
Extraneous variable
Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn?t.
Face validity
Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value ? e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence.
Field experiment
An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Histogram
A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous.
Hypothesis
This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable.
Independent groups design
An experimental design where each participants only takes part in one condition of the IV
Independent variable
The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are ways of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results.
Informed consent
Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part
Inter-observer reliability
The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way
Internal validity
In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics.
Interval level data
Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
Investigator effects
These result from the effects of a researcher?s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation.
Laboratory experiment
An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
Matched pairs design
An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
Mean
Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
Measures of central tendency
A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode
Median
Measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
Meta-analysis
A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted
Mode
Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data
Natural experiment
An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter
Naturalistic observation
An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur
Negative correlation
A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, the other decreases
Nominal level data
Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn?t).
Non-directional hypothesis
A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness).
Normal distribution
An arrangement of a data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre at the highest peak
Observed value
The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test
Observer bias
Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
Open questions
Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data.
Operationalising variables
This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).
Opportunity sample
A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available
Order effects
Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task
Ordinal level data
Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness).
Overt observation
Also known as a disclosed observation as the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed
Participant observation
Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing.
Peer review
Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems
Pilot study
A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn?t then amendments can be made.
Positive correlation
A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, so does the other
Presumptive consent
Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would
Primary data
Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation
Prior general consent
Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose
Probability
How likely something is to happen ? can be expressed as a number (0.5) or a percentage (50% change of tossing coin and getting a head)
Protection of participants
Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life
Qualitative data
Descriptive information that is expressed in words
Quantitative data
Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.
Quasi experiment
An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions
Questionnaire
A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves
Random sampling
A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
Randomisation
Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin' to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation
Range
A measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a set of data
Reliability
Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable.
Repeated measures design
An experimental design where each participants takes part in both/all conditions of the IV
Representative sample
A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
Retrospective consent
Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy.
Right to withdraw
Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part.
Sample
A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation
Scattergram
Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them.
Secondary data
Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics
Semi-structured interview
Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant
Sign test
A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions
Significance
If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance
Single-blind control
Participants are not told the true purpose of the research
Skewed distribution
An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered ro one end of the distribution
Social desirability bias
Participants? behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.
Standard deviation
A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are. .
Standardised instructions
The instructions given to each participant are kept identical ? to help prevent experimenter bias.
Standardised procedures
In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience.
Stratified sample
A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population
Structured interview
Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
Structured observation
An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour
Systematic sample
A sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
Target population
The group that the researchers draws the sample from and wants to be able to generalise the findings to
Temporal validity
Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time
Test-retest reliability
Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two
Thematic analysis
A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
Time sampling
A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals.
Type 1 error
Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false
Type 2 error
Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false
Unstructured interview
Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general aims and it is more like a conversation
Unstructured observation
Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible
Validity
Whether something is true ? measures what it sets out to measure.
Volunteer sample
A sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
Develop the individual:
Students will develop cross curricular knowledge of the scientific method.
Create a supportive community:
Students will reflect on he role of science in understanding human behaviour.